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Katja Ingrid Elbert-Avila, MD

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Multidimensional Spacetime Multi-dimensional models of spacetime have been proposed by physicist/psi researchers Russell Targ moroccanoil oil treatment generic 40mg zerit with amex, Harold Puthoff and Edwin May symptoms at 6 weeks pregnant order zerit australia. They proposed that ordinary four-dimensional Minkowski spacetime may be the "real" part of an eight-dimensional complex spacetime medications osteoarthritis pain buy zerit 40mg low cost. She suggests that soliton waves in a complex multidimensional space might serve as possible psi signals medications related to the blood buy zerit with a mastercard, as they would be able to propagate over large "distances" with little attentuation treatment questionnaire generic zerit 40 mg free shipping. She asserts that signals that appear to be superluminal in four-dimensional spacetime may be subluminal in eight-dimensional spacetime treatment pneumonia order zerit on line. She also contends that the problem of causal loops arising from backward causal chains need not arise in eight-dimensional spacetime. Rauscher suggests that any space-time 366 dependence that exists for psi effects may be accounted for in terms of signal propagation velocities in complex spacetime. A more comprehensive and sophisticated hyperspace model, developed by Saul-Paul Sirag, is summarized in this section under the heading of "unified field theories" and developed further in the Appendix. The confirmation of this principle of nonlocality suggests that psi phenomena, if they exist, need not be in conflict with the established laws of science. The prejudice of classical causality says that an event can only be influenced by other events that are in its past light cone. Events in the future light cone and outside the light cone in the "absolute elsewhere" are said not to influence the event of interest. Classical causality does work on the statistical level in which we average our observations over sets of events. Almost all of the measurements of atomic physics are adequately described by the statistical limit of the quantum principle. It also enables one to calculate the rate of simultaneous arrival if physical reality is objective and locally causal for the individual photons. The experiments of Clauser and Aspect contradict the rate of photon coincidences predicted on the basis of an objective and locally causal reality. This means that physical reality either is not subject to the principle of local causation or does not objectively exist independent of the observers who participate in its creation. The human brain stores and processes its information at the level of single organic molecules and is a single macroscopic quantum system. The illusion of the classical scientific paradigm that is shattered by the quantum principle is the assumption that there is an immutable objective reality "out there" that is totally independent of what happens in consciousness "in here. The Nobel prize physicist Eugene Wigner of Princeton has repeatedly written that consciousness is at the root of the quantum measurement problem. All classical measurements, including classical measurements of quantum processes of the type considered by Heisenberg in his "microscope" that leads to the uncertainty principle, involve the actual flow of energy and momentum in order to convey information. For example, Heisenberg reasons that the position of an electron must be measured by means of a second particle. The only way to gain knowledge of the uncertainties is to repeat the experiment many times under "identically prepared" conditions. These kinds of classical measurements of quantum processes are fundamentally statistical. He says that this limitation is perhaps only a "reflection of the kinds of observation we can make," and that "the physical description of the world would change radically if we could observe more things. One can escape from this conclusion only by either assuming that the measurement of S1 (telepathically) changes the real situation of S2 or by denying independent real situations as such to things which are spatially separated from eath other. It is very interesting to note here that the Y function referred to by Einstein is the standard quantum probability function, referring to the mathematical probabilities which underly the subatomic interactions of the physical world. At least one physicist has commented on the possible synchronicity that this physical term may be very relevant in the psi effect of consciousness researchers. Physicist Nick Herbert, in his book Quantum Reality, describes eight possible interpretations: there is no underlying reality; reality is created by observation; reality is an undivided wholeness; there are actually many-worlds; the world obeys a non-human kind of reasoning; the world is made of ordinary objects; consciousness creates reality; unmeasured quantum reality exists only in potential. Nick Herbert (courtesy Thinking Allowed Productions) the Implicate Order the nonlocal nature of the state vector collapse, as described above, suggests that particles of matter are not accurately describable as separate, localized entities. Rather seemingly isolated or separate particles may be intimately connected with one another and must be seen as parts of a higher unity. Bohm has termed the world of manifest appearances the "explicate order" and the hidden (nonlocal) reality underlying it the "implicate order. On the other hand, the implicate order theory is consistent with and provides a good philosophical underpinning for the testable observational theories, such as those of Mattuck and Walker. Observational Theories Physicist Evan Harris Walker has put forth an observational theory that equates the conscious mind with the "hidden variables" of quantum theory. Evan Harris Walker Walker notes that, due to the necessarily nonlocal nature of such hidden variables, quantum state collapse by the observer should be independent of space and time; hence, psi phenomena such as telepathy should be independent of space-time separation. Noting that the conventional view in physics is to deny that the paradoxes of quantum mechanics have implications beyond the mathematical formalisms, Walker defines his theory: the measurement problem in Quantum Mechanics has existed virtually from the inception of quantum theory. It has engendered a thousand scientific papers in fruitless efforts to resolve the problem. He calculates the rate for "dataprocessing of the brain as a whole at a subconscious level" (S) to be euqal to 2. Copenhagen physicist Richard Mattuck has proposed an observational theory which builds on the work of both Helmut Schmidt and Evan Harris Walker. This selection may be made in steps, resulting in possible incremental increase in velocity by the ball. In my estimation, this work (while incomplete) represents the most advanced model available linking consciousness at a deep level with physical reality. Frankly, after years of detailed discussions with him, I still find it very difficult to comprehend his model. I have included it as an Appendix to the revised edition because I believe that Sirag may well be speaking the language of the future in consciousness research. Young also encouraged Sirag to study the works of Sir Arthur Eddington, the physicist who was famous for producing a nearly incomprehensible unified field theory, which purportedly unified gravity and electromagnetism as well as general relativity and quantum mechanics. Eddington thought of this group as describing the structure of the most elemental measurement: seeing whether or not two rigid rods are the same length. His solution can be stated in this way: insofar as as the mind can know matter, it has a group structure isomorphic to that of matter. Eddington had declared K4 to be the primary group structure of the acquisition of physical knowledge by professional physicists because of his use of K4 to describe the fundamental structure of measurement. The problem, for Sirag, was that K4 as a mathematical group structure did not offer sufficient complexity to capture the richness of theoretical physics since the time of Eddington. He was intrigued with the possibility that a larger, finite group structure called S4 (with subgroup K4) was the right path to unification of mind and matter. This kind of reasoning led to a rather extensive paper, "Physical Constants as Cosmological Constraints" published in 1983. In this paper Sirag showed that the physical constants determine the large-scale structure of the universe in such a way that the present-day scale factor the "radius" can be calculated, as well as the age and the density, and various other cosmological properties. An Associated Press article on the discovery quotes Nobel Laureate physicist Burton Richter, Director of the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, as saying that the major mystery remaining is "why God chose three families instead of one or nine or 47. In his various published works, Sirag claims to have developed new solutions for some of the most fundamental problems in all of science: the age and size of the universe and the number of basic subatomic building blocks. The predictions which he has made in these areas stand to be either confirmed or refuted in the coming decades. It is from this theoretical work that his mathematical theory of consciousness has emerged. While models of consciousness are far more difficult to verify or falsify than models of the physical universe, the logic of developing a model of consciousenss from advanced views of physical reality is quite compelling. He finds that unified field theories of the physical forces depend fundamentally on mathematical structures called reflection spaces, which are heierarchically organized in such a way that an infinite spectrum of realities is naturally suggested. This situation is natural because mathematicians have discovered that the hierarchical organization of reflection spaces also corresponds to the organization of many other mathematical objects. It is generally believed by physicists working on unified field theory that space-time is hyperdimensional, with all but four of the dimensions being invisible. Beside space-time dimensions, there are also other internal (or invisible) dimensions called gauge dimensions. The reality of these gauge dimensions is also a topic of controversy and research. This provides scope for considering ordinary reality a substructure within a hyperdimensional reality. This group, which directly models certain symmetries of particle physics, is a symmetry group of one of the Platonic solids the octehedron. In fact the reflection space corresponding to the octehedron is seven-dimensional and is also a superstring-type reflection space, so that a link with the most popular version of unified field theory is provided. This implies that the high level of consciousness enjoyed by hu$ans is due to the complex network of connections to the underlying reflection space afforded by a highly evolved brain. Moreover, the hierarchy of reflection spaces suggests a hierarchy of realms (or states) of consciousness. Each realm would correspond to a different unified field theory with different sets of forces. In fact, the seven-dimensional reflection space is contained in an eight-dimensional reflection space, and contains a six dimensional reflection space, so that there would be a realm of consciousness directly "above" ordinary reality, and a realm of consciousness directly "below" ordinary reality. In principle the relationship between 372 the different forces in these different realms could be worked out in detail, so that precise predictions could be made. Sirag believes that this hierarchy of realms of consciousness is analagous to the spectrum of light discovered in 1864 by James Clerk Maxwell in his electromagnetic theory of light, which unified the forces of electricity and magnetism. Maxwell had no way of directly testing his theory, which proposed the reality of frequencies of light both higher and lower than that of ordinary light. He boldly proposed the existence of invisible light, simply because his equations contained the higher and lower frequencies. Similarly, in the unification of all the forces, we can expect something new to be described, which could be the analog of light. Sirag proposes that this new thing be consciousness, and that since the mathematics of the unification gives reflection space a central role, the hierarchy of reflection spaces suggests a hierarchy of realms of consciousness. Evaluating Implications of the New Physics One of the most fundamental developments in the past two decades has been the experimental confirmations of the principle of nonlocality in quantum mechanics and the realization of the importance of that principle for a theory of psi phenomena. If nothing else, this breakthrough strongly suggests that psi phenomena, if they exist, need not be in conflict with established laws of science. We still lack a reliable data base and repeatable psi effects upon which a theory might be constructed and refined. We also lack a comprehensive theory of consciousness itself, upon which a theory of psi must, inevitably, be built. Thus many of the theories discussed represent mere presentations of "theoretical environments" in which more testable theories might be constructed. While I have been focusing on the relationship between physics and consciousness, this is only a short step from the issue of physics and mysticism. It is in this realm that many physicists themselves, as well as scholars of mysticism, feel that physics can have little to say. Ken Wilbur, for example, firmly maintains that the attempt to prove the reality of mystical experience by resorting to scientific arguments does a great injustice to genuine mysticism which is self-supporting and timeless. This is an important point, however, it is also premature to assume that physics will never develop permanent and complete answers. After all, physics is based upon mathematics, and that field does seem to have developed some permanent solutions. Fred Alan Wolf, "Trans-World I-ness: Quantum Physics and the Enlightened Condition," in Humor Suddenly Returns: Essays on the Spiritual Teaching of Master Da Free John. Fred Alan Wolf, "The Quantum Physics of Consciousness: Towards a New Psychology," Integrative Psychiatry, 3(4), December 1985, 236. The authors state this work was in conjunction with physicist Gerald Feinberg who is well-known for his postulation of the existence of tachyons, particles that travel faster than light. Physicist Evan Harris Walker ("Review of Mind At Large," Journal of Parapsychology, 45, 1981, 184-191) has observed, however, that if we retain the inverse-square law for gravity, the effect of four extra dimensions on planetary trajectories should have been observed. Rauscher, "Some Physical Models Potentially Applicable to Remote Perception," in A. Major Principles of Physics, Psychic Phenomena, and Some Physical Models," Psi Research, 2(2), 1983, 64-88. Rauscher, "Superluminal Transformations in Complex Minkowski Spaces," Foundations of Physics, 10, 1980, 661-669. Nick Herbert, "Crytographic approach to hidden variables," American Journal of Physics, Vol. Drell, "Electron-Positron Annihilation and the New Particles," Scientific American, June 1975. Brian Josephson, "Possible Connections Between Psychic Phenomena and Quantum Mechanics," New Horizons, January 1975, 224-226. Evan Harris Walker, "Foundations of Paraphysical and Parapsychological Phenomena," in L. Evan Harris Walker, "A Review of CritAcisms of the Quantum Mechanical Theory of Psi Phenomena," Journal of Parapsychology, 48, 1984, 277-332. Mattuck, "A Model of the Interaction Between Consciousness and Matter using Bohm-Bub Hidden Variables," in W. Saul-Paul Sirag, "Physical Constants as Cosmological Constraints," International Journal of Theoretical Physics, 22, 1983, 1067-1089. Saul-Paul Sirag, "Why There Are Three Fermion Families," Bulletin of the American Physics Society, 27(1), 1982, 31. Young, an iconoclastic genius who invented the first, commercially licensed helicopter and later became a philosopher of cosmology and process theory. Young Many thousands of lives have been saved as a result of his revolutionary invention. This is a far bolder endeavor than the search for a grand unified field theory in physics.

However medicine tour zerit 40 mg overnight delivery, this seems unlikely given that only 10 (<2%) veterans were unable to attend on the basis of physical/mental disability symptoms 7 days before period zerit 40 mg for sale, and only 372 (<6%) refused to attend medicine keeper buy 40 mg zerit with visa, with the main reasons being a lack of interest or unwillingness to travel treatment 8 cm ovarian cyst discount 40mg zerit with amex. In addition medicine 93 2264 discount zerit 40 mg amex, future studies should attempt to measure and take account of a full range of factors likely to be associated with both mental and physical health symptoms kidney failure dogs order zerit canada. As the metabolic syndrome increases risk for cardiovascular and all-cause mortality (Isomaa, et al. The bulk of this research has focused on depression and although contrary indications exist (Herva et al. In a small study of outpatients, those who still had a diagnosis at 6-year follow-up showed a higher prevalence of the metabolic syndrome (Heiskanen, et al. Much less attention has been paid to anxiety and the metabolic syndrome and the three most recent studies reported null findings (Herva, et al. However, an earlier study of women found an association between the metabolic syndrome and increased anxiety seven years later (Raikkonen, et al. Generalised Anxiety Disorder, Mortality and Disease: A Stronger Predictor than Major Depressive Disorder 127 3. Full details of the characteristics of those with and without the metabolic syndrome are shown in Table 3. Thus, the apparent discrepancy between the present findings and those of others may be more illusory than real. If anxiety precedes metabolic syndrome, there are at least two pathways through which it might contribute to its aetiology. First, anxiety has been associated with unhealthy behaviour, such as smoking, binge drinking, physical inactivity, and unhealthy diet (Strine et al. Second, it has been postulated that hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical dysregulation associated with affective disorders, including anxiety, may contribute over time to the metabolic syndrome (Raikkonen, et al. There is evidence linking anxiety with altered cortisol activity; high levels of anxiety symptoms were found to be associated with a less pronounced cortisol awakening response (Therrien et al. The metabolic syndrome has been shown to predict symptoms of anxiety seven years later (Raikkonen, et al. Further, it is reasonable to presume that diagnosis of some of the components of the metabolic syndrome may be anxiolytic. For example, irrespective of actual blood pressure levels, perceived hypertensive status was positively associated with anxiety (Spruill et al. A recent review concluded that evidence relating depression to the metabolic syndrome was stronger for women than men (Goldbacher & Matthews, 2007). Finally, although we adjusted for many possible confounders, residual confounding as a consequence of poorly measured or unmeasured variables cannot be wholly discounted. However, there is at least some cross-sectional and prospective evidence of a positive association (Patten et al. At the medical examination in 1986, with the participant in a sitting position, a registered nurse, using a standard mercury sphygmomanometer to blood pressure measured, twice consecutively, from both arms. Hypertension was defined by having one of the following: a reported physician-diagnosis at interview; reported taking antihypertensive medication; an average systolic blood pressure? There were 441 participants who indicated during the telephone interview that they had a physician diagnosis of hypertension and a further 98 who, although not reporting a diagnosis of hypertension, indicated that they were taking antihypertensive medication. Others have encountered individuals without an acknowledged diagnosis of hypertension who report taking antihypertensive medication and have designated them as hypertensive (Patten et al. The remainder and majority (N = 842) of those classified as hypertensive was as a result of the blood pressure assessment at the medical examination. This suggests that there was substantial undiagnosed and/or untreated hypertension. As our outcome measure is hypertension, it is essential to include participants with a physician diagnosis of hypertension in that outcome. Of the participants with a diagnosis of hypertension, 292 (66%) were taking anti-hypertensive medication. The effect of this would be to lower blood pressure, such that some of these participants (N = 108) no longer met a criterion solely based on measured blood pressure. Given that antihypertensive medication can be prescribed for conditions other than hypertension, hypertension was redefined based on only physician diagnosis and measured blood pressure. This reduced the sample to 4180 and the numbers classified as hypertensive as 1329 (32%). Generalised Anxiety Disorder, Mortality and Disease: A Stronger Predictor than Major Depressive Disorder 131 However, in the fully adjusted comorbidity competitive analysis, no statistically significant relationships emerged. The only association to approach significance was between co-morbidity and hypertension. This proportion is somewhat higher than that reported from studies with participants of a similar mean age. However, in part this could reflect different definitions of hypertension; relying solely on reported diagnostic and medication status, and not including measured blood pressure, will almost certainly lead to an underestimate of prevalence. In addition, the present sample was clustered at the low end of the socio-economic spectrum. Other analyses indicate an inverse gradient between socio-economic status and measured blood pressure, although a less consistent association between socio-economic position and hypertension treatment rates (Colhoun, Hemingway, & Poulter, 1998). In the present sample, however, household income in midlife was associated with hypertension. The latter result is consistent with the cross-sectional and prospective outcomes from the Canadian National Population Health Survey (Patten et al. It is possible that co-morbidity signals more severe psychiatric dysfunction and that it is the severity of dysfunction that is associated with physical health outcomes, similar to the findings for mortality above. However, it is also possible that comorbidity reflects a greater negative disposition, and it is this which is associated with hypertension (Suls & Bunde, 2005). In addition, in the majority of instances in the present study, hypertension was apparently undiagnosed. In the present analyses, the associations were still evident following adjustment for two of the most prominent unhealthy behaviours, smoking and high levels of alcohol consumption. That smokers have lower blood pressure and that alcohol consumption is positively related to hypertension are common observations (Beilin, 1987; Green, Jucha, & Luz, 1986). Although we have no data directly pertaining to the second route, others have observed altered activity of the hypothalamic 132 Anxiety and Related Disorders pituitary-adrenal axis in approximately 50% of depressed patients (Brown, Varghese, & McEwen, 2004), which, in turn, may increase the risk of hypertension (Torpy, Mullen, Ilias, & Nieman, 2002). Indeed, in the Framingham study, symptoms of anxiety predicted hypertension in middle-aged men but not middle-aged women (Markovitz et al. In addition, the present participants were largely from the lower end of the socio-economic spectrum and thus our findings may not generalise to the population as a whole. Depression has been the main focus for studies of psychiatric disorders and physical health outcomes. Future research remains to determine the mechanisms underlying these associations with health outcomes, through prospective assessment and a thorough inclusion of both biological and behavioural covariates. The author would also like to acknowledge the involvement of Professor Douglas Carroll, Dr Catharine Gale, and Dr G. Generalised Anxiety Disorder, Mortality and Disease: A Stronger Predictor than Major Depressive Disorder 133 Beilin, L. Diseases among men 20 years after exposure to severe stress: implications for clinical research and medical care. Posttraumatic stress disorder and physical illness: results from clinical and epidemiologic studies. External-cause mortality after psychologic trauma: the effects of stress exposure and predisposition. Higher abnormal leukocyte and lymphocyte counts 20 years after exposure to severe stress: research and clinical implications. Personality, disease severity, and the risk of long-term cardiac events in patients with a decreased ejection fraction after myocardial infarction. Depression: an important co morbidity with metabolic syndrome in a general population. Tension and anxiety and the prediction of the 10-year incidence of coronary heart disease, atrial fibrillation, and total mortality: the Framingham Offspring Study. The impact of negative emotions on prognosis following myocardial infarction: is it more than depression? Psychosocial factors and risk of ischaemic heart disease and death in women: a twelve-year follow-up of participants in the population study of women in Gothenburg, Sweden. Diagnostic groups and depressed mood as predictors of 22-month mortality in medical inpatients. Co occurrence of metabolic syndrome with depression and anxiety in young adults: the Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort Study. Mental health problems, use of mental health services, and attrition from military service after returning from deployment to Iraq or Afghanistan. Combat duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, mental health problems, and barriers to care. The relationship between generalized anxiety disorder, depression and mortality in old age. Longitudinal evidence from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study. Impairment in pure and comorbid generalized anxiety disorder and major depression at 12 months in two national surveys. Depression and the metabolic syndrome in young adults: findings from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Metabolic syndrome predisposes to depressive symptoms: a population based 7-year follow-up study. The metabolic syndrome and total and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle-aged men. Mortality and quality of life 12 months after myocardial infarction: effects of depression and anxiety. Depressive symptoms and metabolic risk in adult male twins enrolled in the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute twin study. The relationship of depression to cardiovascular disease: epidemiology, biology, and treatment. Long term medical conditions and major depression: strength of association for specific 136 Anxiety and Related Disorders conditions in the general population. Major depression as a risk factor for high blood pressure: epidemiologic evidence from a national longitudinal study. The relationship between psychological risk attributes and the metabolic syndrome in healthy women: antecedent or consequence? Combat and peacekeeping operations in relation to prevalence of mental disorders and perceived need for mental health care: findings from a large representative sample of military personnel. Serum lipid concentrations in patients with comorbid generalized anxiety disorder and major depressive disorder. Generalised Anxiety Disorder, Mortality and Disease: A Stronger Predictor than Major Depressive Disorder 137 Suls, J. Anger, anxiety, and depression as risk factors for cardiovascular disease: the problems and implications of overlapping affective dispositions. Awakening cortisol response in relation to psychosocial profiles and eating behaviors. Metabolic syndrome increases all-cause and vascular mortality: the Hong Kong Cardiovascular Risk Factor Study. Mental health status as a predictor of morbidity and mortality: a 15-year follow-up of members of a health maintenance organization. Panic disorder and cardiovascular/cerebrovascular problems: results from a community survey. Depression and inflammation in patients with coronary heart disease: findings from the Heart and Soul Study. Introduction Anxiety disorders are amongst the most common psychiatric disorders in all over the world. Its an emotion that prepares the individual to the environmental changes or helps to create a response to those changes. Also there are psychological symptoms such as distress, excitement and a precognition and fear of suddenly something bad going to happen. Anxiety is a symptom that could be seen in many organic disorder and can accompany almost any psychiatric disorder. Nowadays, the relationship between psychological factors and cardiac disease have been discussed. Because creation potential of the sudden death due to cardiac diseases are more sensitive to the psychiatric disorders and development of any cardiac disease might start serious mental issues. Anxious thoughts causes reduced autonomic variability condition which is a result of decrease in vagal tone. The first reaction to stress is muscle weakness and a feeling of heart stopping due to parasympathic activation. A short time later, the sympathetic system is activated, sweating, palpitation, tremors, rapid and deep breathing begin. When they do challenging activities or concerned there will be cardiovascular variability and falls occur phasic parasympathetic tone. Studies on this subject emphasize cardiac sensitization caused by sympathetic activity. According to this stimulation of central and peripheral adrenergic structures, catecholamine infusion and behavioral stress can cause cardiac sensitivity in both healthy and ischemic heart. Cardiac diseases within the psychiatric views (whether or syndromal levels of disorder matter), surely, should be recognized and addressed. Patients who work under heavy stressful conditions suffers from continuous excreting of catecholamine with the further aggravated cardiac disease. At the same time, anxiety is caused by a decrease in vagal control also increases the susceptibility to coronary cardiac disease. On most cardiac diseases cases, an intense anger and hostile attitude follows the anxiety.

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Research Focus: Stereotype Threat Although intelligence tests may not be culturally biased medicine synonym cheap zerit online mastercard, the situation in which one takes a test may be medicine 5000 increase buy zerit 40 mg with visa. One environmental factor that may affect how individuals perform and achieve is their expectations about their ability at a task treatment erectile dysfunction cheap zerit 40 mg. In some cases these beliefs may be positive symptoms 6 days post iui discount 40 mg zerit fast delivery, and they have the effect of making us feel more confident and thus better able to perform tasks osteoporosis treatment cheap zerit 40mg without a prescription. On the other hand treatment jokes buy zerit 40 mg low price, sometimes these beliefs are negative, and they create negative self-fulfilling prophecies such that we perform more poorly just because of our knowledge about the stereotypes. Because Black students are aware of the stereotype that Blacks are intellectually inferior to Whites, this stereotype might create a negative expectation, which might interfere with their performance on intellectual tests through fear of confirming that stereotype. In support of this hypothesis, the experiments revealed that Black college students performed worse (in comparison to their prior test scores) on standardized test questions when this task was described to them as being diagnostic of their verbal ability (and thus when the stereotype was relevant), but that their performance was not influenced when the same questions were described as an exercise in problem solving. And in another study, the researchers found that when Black students were asked to indicate their race before they took a math test (again activating the stereotype), they performed more poorly than they had on prior exams, whereas White students were not affected by first indicating their race. Steele and Aronson argued that thinking about negative stereotypes that are relevant to a task that one is performing createsstereotype threat?performance decrements that are caused by the knowledge of cultural stereotypes. That is, they argued that the negative impact of race on standardized tests may be caused, at least in part, by the performance situation itself. Because the threat is in the air,? Black students may be negatively influenced by it. Research has found that stereotype threat effects can help explain a wide variety of performance decrements among those who are targeted by negative stereotypes. For instance, when a math task is described as diagnostic of intelligence, Latinos and Latinas perform more poorly than do Whites (Gonzales, Blanton, & Williams, [28] 2002). Similarly, when stereotypes are activated, children with low socioeconomic status perform more poorly in math than do those with high socioeconomic status, and psychology students perform more poorly than do natural [29] science students (Brown, Croizet, Bohner, Fournet, & Payne, 2003; Croizet & Claire, 1998). Even groups who typically enjoy advantaged social status can be made to experience stereotype threat. Research has found that stereotype threat is caused by both cognitive and emotional factors (Schmader, Johns, & [32] Forbes, 2008). On the cognitive side, individuals who are experiencing stereotype threat show an increased vigilance toward the environment as well as increased attempts to suppress stereotypic thoughts. On the affective side, stereotype threat occurs when there is a discrepancy between our positive concept of our own skills and abilities and the negative stereotypes that suggest poor performance. These discrepancies create stress and anxiety, and these emotions make it harder to perform well on the task. What is important is to reduce the self doubts that are activated when we consider the negative stereotypes. In fact, just knowing that stereotype threat exists and may influence our performance can help [34] alleviate its negative impact (Johns, Schmader, & Martens, 2005). Although some people are naturally taller than others (height is heritable), people who get plenty of nutritious food are taller than people who do not, and this difference is clearly due to environment. This is a reminder that group differences may be created by environmental variables but also able to be reduced through appropriate environmental actions such as educational and training programs. Does it matter to you whether or not the tests have been standardized and shown to be reliable and valid? Give your ideas about the practice of providing accelerated classes to children listed as gifted? in high school. What implications do you think the differences have for education and career choices? A role for the X chromosome in sex differences in variability in general intelligence? Credulity and gullibility in people with developmental disorders: A framework for future research. Study of mathematically precocious youth after 35 years: Uncovering antecedents for the development of math-science expertise. A meta-analytic review of sex differences in facial expression processing and their development in infants, children, and adolescents. Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: A meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables. Racial and ethnic differences in intelligence in the United States on the differential ability scale. The effects of stereotype threat and double-minority status on the test performance of Latino women. Automatic category activation and social behaviour: the moderating role of prejudiced beliefs. Extending the concept of stereotype and threat to social class: the intellectual underperformance of students from low socioeconomic backgrounds. When white men can?t do math: Necessary and sufficient factors in stereotype threat. Battling doubt by avoiding practice: the effects of stereotype threat on self-handicapping in White athletes. Human language is the most complex behavior on the planet and, at least as far as we know, in the universe. Language involves both the ability to comprehend spoken and written words and to create communication in real time when we speak or write. Speaking involves a variety of complex cognitive, social, and biological processes including operation of the vocal cords, and the coordination of breath with movements of the throat and mouth, and tongue. Other languages are sign languages, in which the communication is expressed by movements of the hands. Although language is often used for the transmission of information (?turn right at the next light and then go straight,? Place tab A into slot B?), this is only its most mundane function. Language also allows us to access existing knowledge, to draw conclusions, to set and accomplish goals, and to understand and communicate complex social relationships. Language can be conceptualized in terms of sounds, meaning, and the environmental factors that help us understand it. Phonemes are the elementary sounds of our language, morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language, syntax is the set of grammatical rules that control how words are put together, and contextual information is the elements of communication that are not part of the content of language but that help us understand its meaning. The Components of Language A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that makes a meaningful difference in a language. The word bit? has three phonemes, /b/, /i/, and /t/ (in transcription, phonemes are placed between slashes), and the word pit? also has three: /p/, /i/, and /t/. In spoken languages, phonemes are produced by the positions and movements of the vocal tract, including our lips, teeth, tongue, vocal cords, and throat, whereas in sign languages phonemes are defined by the shapes and movement of the hands. There are hundreds of unique phonemes that can be made by human speakers, but most languages only use a small subset of the possibilities. English contains about 45 phonemes, whereas other languages have as few as 15 and others more than 60. The Hawaiian language contains only about a dozen phonemes, including 5 vowels (a, e, i, o, and u) and 7 consonants (h, k, l, m, n, p, and w). In addition to using a different set of phonemes, because the phoneme is actually a category of sounds that are treated alike within the language, speakers of different languages are able to hear the difference only between some phonemes but not others. English speakers can differentiate the /r/ phoneme from the /l/ phoneme, and thus rake? and lake? are heard as different words. In Japanese, however, /r/ and /l/ are the same phoneme, and thus speakers of that language cannot tell the difference between the word rake? and the word lake. To English speakers they both sound the same, but to speakers of Arabic these represent two different phonemes. Phonemes that were initially differentiated come to [1] be treated as equivalent (Werker & Tees, 2002). Discriminability, response bias, and phoneme categories in discrimination of voice onset time. Whereas phonemes are the smallest units of sound in language, a morphemeis a string of one or more phonemes that makes up the smallest units of meaning in a language. Some morphemes, such as one-letter words like I? and a,? are also phonemes, but most morphemes are made up of combinations of phonemes. For example, the syllable re-? as in rewrite? or repay? means to do again,? and the suffix est? as in happiest? or coolest? means to the maximum. We usecontextual information?the information surrounding language?to help us interpret it. Examples of contextual information include the knowledge that we have and that we know that other people have, and nonverbal expressions such as facial expressions, postures, gestures, and tone of voice. Misunderstandings can easily arise if people aren?t attentive to contextual information or if some of it is missing, such as it may be in newspaper headlines or in text messages. Examples in Which Syntax Is Correct but the Interpretation Can Be Ambiguous??Grandmother of Eight Makes Hole in One??Milk Drinkers Turn to Powder??Farmer Bill Dies in House??Old School Pillars Are Replaced by Alumni??Two Convicts Evade Noose, Jury Hung??Include Your Children When Baking Cookies the Biology and Development of Language Anyone who has tried to master a second language as an adult knows the difficulty of language learning. Children who are not exposed to language early in their lives will likely never learn one. Case studies, including Victor the Wild Child,? who was abandoned as a baby in France and not discovered until he was 12, and Genie, a child whose parents kept her locked in a closet from 18 months until 13 years of age, are (fortunately) two of the only known examples of these deprived children. Both of these children made some progress in socialization after they were rescued, but neither of them ever developed [2] language (Rymer, 1993). This is also why it is important to determine quickly if a child is deaf and to begin immediately to communicate in sign language. Testing the Critical Period Hypothesis For many years psychologists assumed that there was a critical period (a time in which learning can easily occur) for language learning, lasting between infancy and puberty, and after which language learning was more difficult or [4] impossible (Lenneberg, 1967; Penfield & Roberts, 1959). The participants were all adults who had immigrated to the United States between 3 and 39 years of age and who were tested on their English skills by being asked to detect grammatical errors in sentences. Johnson and Newport found that the participants who had begun learning English before they were 7 years old learned it as well as native English speakers but that the ability to learn English dropped off gradually for the participants who had started later. Newport and Johnson also found a correlation between the age of acquisition and the variance in the ultimate learning of the language. While early learners were almost all successful in acquiring their language to a high degree of proficiency, later learners showed much greater individual variation. But their finding of a gradual decrease in proficiency for those who immigrated between 8 and 39 years of age was not?rather, it suggested that there might not be a single critical period of language learning that ended at puberty, as early theorists had expected, but that language learning at later ages is simply better when it occurs earlier. This idea was reinforced in research by Hakuta, [6] Bialystok, and Wiley (2003), who examined U. The census form asks respondents to describe their own English ability using one of five categories: not at all,? not well,? well,? very well,? and speak only English. Regardless of level of education, self-reported second-language skills decreased consistently across age of immigration. For the 90% of people who are right-handed, language is stored and controlled by the left cerebral cortex, although for some left-handers this pattern is reversed. These differences can easily be seen in the results of neuroimaging studies that show that listening to and producing language creates greater activity in the left hemisphere than in the right. This area was first localized in the 1860s by the French physician Paul Broca, who studied patients with lesions to various parts of the brain. Learning Language Language learning begins even before birth, because the fetus can hear muffled versions of [7] speaking from outside the womb. Babies are also aware of the patterns of their native language, showing surprise when they hear speech that has a different patterns of phonemes than those they are used to (Saffran, [8] Aslin, & Newport, 2004). During the first year or so after birth, and long before they speak their first words, infants are already learning language. By the time they are 6 to 8 weeks old, babies start making vowel sounds (?ooohh,? aaahh,? goo?) as well as a variety of cries and squeals to help them practice. At about 7 months, infants begin babbling, engaging in intentional vocalizations that lack specific meaning. Children babble as practice in creating specific sounds, and by the time they are 1 year old, the babbling uses primarily the sounds of the language that they are learning (de [9] Boysson-Bardies, Sagart, & Durand, 1984). These vocalizations have a conversational tone that sounds meaningful even though it isn?t. Babbling also helps children understand the social, communicative function of language. Children who are exposed to sign language babble in sign [10] by making hand movements that represent real language (Petitto & Marentette, 1991). At the same time that infants are practicing their speaking skills by babbling, they are also learning to better understand sounds and eventually the words of language. One of the first words that children understand is their own name, usually by about 6 months, followed by commonly used words like bottle,? mama,? and doggie? by 10 to 12 months (Mandel, Jusczyk, & Pisoni, [11] 1995). It is at this point that the child first understands that words are more than sounds?they refer to particular objects and ideas. By the time children are 2 years old, they have a vocabulary of several hundred words, and by kindergarten their vocabularies have increased to several thousand words. By fifth grade most children know about 50,000 words and by the time they are in college, about 200,000. The early utterances of children contain many errors, for instance, confusing /b/ and /d/, or /c/ and /z/. And the words that children create are often simplified, in part because they are not yet able to make the more complex sounds of the real language (Dobrich & Scarborough, [12] 1992). Often these early words are accompanied by gestures that may also be easier to produce than the words themselves. Because language involves the active categorization of sounds and words into higher level units, children make some mistakes in interpreting what words mean and how to use them. In particular, they often make overextensions of concepts, which means they use a given word in a broader context than appropriate. Infants are frequently more attuned to the tone of voice of the person speaking than to the content of the words themselves, and are aware of the target of speech. Werker, Pegg, [13] and McLeod (1994) found that infants listened longer to a woman who was speaking to a baby than to a woman who was speaking to another adult. Children also use their knowledge of syntax to help them figure out what words mean.

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Narrowing of the personal repertoire of patterns of psychoactive substance use has also been described as a characteristic feature treatment variable zerit 40 mg fast delivery. It is an essential characteristic of the dependence syndrome that either psychoactive substance taking or a desire to take a particular substance should be present; the subjective awareness of compulsion to use drugs is most commonly seen during attempts to stop or control substance use medications knee safe zerit 40 mg. This diagnostic requirement would exclude medications voltaren generic zerit 40 mg with visa, for instance symptoms uterine prolapse cheap generic zerit uk, surgical patients given opioid drugs for the relief of pain symptoms of depression generic 40 mg zerit amex, who may show signs of an opioid withdrawal state when drugs are not given but who have no desire to continue taking drugs medicine head buy generic zerit 40 mg line. Includes: chronic alcoholism dipsomania drug addiction the diagnosis of the dependence syndrome may be further specified by the following five-character codes: F1x. Onset and course of the withdrawal state are time-limited and are related to the type of substance and the dose being used immediately before abstinence. Diagnostic guidelines Withdrawal state is one of the indicators of dependence syndrome (see F1x. Withdrawal state should be coded as the main diagnosis if it is the reason for referral and sufficiently severe to require medical attention in its own right. Typically, the patient is likely to report that withdrawal symptoms are relieved by further substance use. It should be remembered that withdrawal symptoms can be induced by conditioned/learned stimuli in the absence of immediately preceding substance use. In such cases a diagnosis of withdrawal state should be made only if it is warranted in terms of severity. Many symptoms present in drug withdrawal state may also be caused by other psychiatric conditions. Simple "hangover" or tremor due to other conditions should not be confused with the symptoms of a withdrawal state. The diagnosis of withdrawal state may be further specified by using the following five-character codes: F1x. Delirium tremens is a short-lived, but occasionally life-threatening, toxic-confusional state with accompanying somatic disturbances. It is usually a consequence of absolute or relative withdrawal of alcohol in severely dependent users with a long history of use. In some cases the disorder appears during an episode of heavy drinking, in which case it should be coded here. The classical triad of symptoms includes clouding of consciousness and confusion, vivid hallucinations and illusions affecting any sensory modality, and marked tremor. Delusions, agitation, insomnia or sleep-cycle reversal, and autonomic overactivity are usually also present. The sensorium is usually clear but some degree of clouding of consciousness, though not severe confusion, may be present. The disorder typically resolves at least partially within 1 month and fully within 6 months. Diagnostic guidelines A psychotic disorder occurring during or immediately after drug use (usually within 48 hours) should be recorded here provided that it is not a manifestation of drug withdrawal state with delirium (see F1x. Late-onset psychotic disorders (with onset more than 2 weeks after substance use) may occur, but should be coded as F1x. Psychoactive substance-induced psychotic disorders may present with varying patterns of symptoms. These variations will be influenced by the type of substance involved and the personality of the user. For stimulant drugs such as cocaine and amfetamines, drug-induced psychotic disorders are generally closely related to high dose levels and/or prolonged use of the substance. A diagnosis of a psychotic disorder should not be made merely on the basis of perceptual distortions or hallucinatory experiences when substances having primary hallucinogenic effects. In such cases, and also for confusional states, a possible diagnosis of acute intoxication (F1x. Particular care should also be taken to avoid mistakenly diagnosing a more serious condition. Many psychoactive substance-induced psychotic states are of short duration provided that no further amounts of the drug are taken (as in the case of amfetamine and cocaine psychoses). False diagnosis in such cases may have distressing and costly implications for the patient and for the health services. Consider the possibility of another mental disorder being aggravated or precipitated by psychoactive substance use. In such cases, a diagnosis of psychoactive substance-induced psychotic state may be inappropriate. Disturbances of time sense and ordering of events are usually evident, as are difficulties in learning new material. Other cognitive functions are usually relatively well preserved and amnesic defects are out of proportion to other disturbances. Diagnostic guidelines Amnesic syndrome induced by alcohol or other psychoactive substances coded here should meet the general criteria for organic amnesic syndrome (see F04). The primary requirements for this diagnosis are: (a)memory impairment as shown in impairment of recent memory (learning of new material); disturbances of time sense (rearrangements of chronological sequence, telescoping of repeated events into one, etc. Personality changes, often with apparent apathy and loss of initiative, and a tendency towards self-neglect may also be present, but should not be regarded as necessary conditions for diagnosis. Although confabulation may be marked it should not be regarded as a necessary prerequisite for diagnosis. Consider: organic amnesic syndrome (nonalcoholic) (see F04); other organic syndromes involving marked impairment of memory. Diagnostic guidelines Onset of the disorder should be directly related to the use of alcohol or a psychoactive substance. Cases in which initial onset occurs later than episode(s) of substance use should be coded here only where clear and strong evidence is available to attribute the state to the residual effect of the substance. The disorder should represent a change from or marked exaggeration of prior and normal state of functioning. The disorder should persist beyond any period of time during which direct effects of the psychoactive substance might be assumed to be operative (see F1x. Alcohol or psychoactive substance-induced dementia is not always irreversible; after an extended period of total abstinence, intellectual functions and memory may improve. The disorder should be carefully distinguished from withdrawal-related conditions (see F1x. It should be remembered that, under certain conditions and for certain substances, withdrawal state phenomena may be present for a period of many days or weeks after discontinuation of the substance. Conditions induced by a psychoactive substance, persisting after its use, and meeting the criteria for diagnosis of psychotic disorder should not be diagnosed here (use F1x. Consider: pre-existing mental disorder masked by substance use and re-emerging as psychoactive substance-related effects fade (for example, phobic anxiety, a depressive disorder, schizophrenia, or schizotypal disorder). Consider also organic injury and mild or moderate mental retardation (F70-F71), which may coexist with psychoactive substance misuse. This diagnostic rubric may be further subdivided by using the following five-character codes: -75 F1x. Schizotypal disorder possesses many of the characteristic features of schizophrenic disorders and is probably genetically related to them; however, the hallucinations, delusions, and gross behavioural disturbances of schizophrenia itself are absent and so this disorder does not always come to medical attention. Most of the delusional disorders are probably unrelated to schizophrenia, although they may be difficult to distinguish clinically, particularly in their early stages. They form a heterogeneous and poorly understood collection of disorders, which can conveniently be divided according to their typical duration into a group of persistent delusional disorders and a larger group of acute and transient psychotic disorders. Schizoaffective disorders have been retained in this section in spite of their controversial nature. F20 Schizophrenia the schizophrenic disorders are characterized in general by fundamental and characteristic distortions of thinking and perception, and by inappropriate or blunted affect. Clear consciousness and intellectual capacity are usually maintained, although certain cognitive deficits may evolve in the course of time. The disturbance involves the most basic functions that give the normal person a feeling of individuality, uniqueness, and self-direction. Perception is frequently disturbed in other ways: colours or sounds may seem unduly vivid or altered in quality, and irrelevant features of ordinary things may appear more important than the whole object or situation. Perplexity is also common early on and frequently leads to a belief that everyday situations possess a special, usually sinister, meaning intended uniquely for the individual. In the characteristic schizo phrenic disturbance of thinking, peripheral and irrelevant features of a total concept, which are inhibited in normal directed mental activity, are brought to the fore and utilized in place of those that are relevant and appropriate to the situation. Thus thinking becomes vague, elliptical, and obscure, and its expression in speech sometimes incomprehensible. Breaks and interpolations in the train of thought are frequent, and thoughts may seem to be withdrawn by some outside agency. Ambivalence and disturbance of volition may appear as inertia, negativism, or stupor. The onset may be acute, with seriously disturbed behaviour, or insidious, with a gradual development of odd ideas and conduct. The course of the disorder shows equally great variation and is by no means inevitably chronic or deteriorating (the course is specified by five-character categories). In a proportion of cases, which may vary in different cultures and populations, the outcome is complete, or nearly complete, recovery. The sexes are approximately equally affected but the onset tends to be later in women. Diagnostic guidelines the normal requirement for a diagnosis of schizophrenia is that a minimum of one very clear symptom (and usually two or more if less clear-cut) belonging to any one of the groups listed as (a) to (d) above, or symptoms from at least two of the groups referred to as (e) to (h), should have been clearly present for most of the time during a period of 1 month or more. Conditions meeting such symptomatic requirements but of duration less than 1 month (whether treated or not) should be diagnosed in the first instance as acute schizophrenia-like psychotic disorder (F23. Symptom (i) in the above list applies only to the diagnosis of Simple Schizophrenia (F20. Viewed retrospectively, it may be clear that a prodromal phase in which symptoms and behaviour, such as loss of interest in work, social activities, and personal appearance and hygiene, together with generalized anxiety and mild degrees of depression and preoccupation, preceded the onset of psychotic symptoms by weeks or even months. Because of the difficulty in timing onset, the 1-month duration criterion applies only to the specific symptoms listed above and not to any prodromal nonpsychotic phase. The diagnosis of schizophrenia should not be made in the presence of extensive depressive or manic symptoms unless it is clear that schizophrenic symptoms antedated the affective disturbance. If both schizophrenic and affective symptoms develop together and are evenly balanced, the diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder (F25. Schizophrenia should not be diagnosed in the presence of overt brain disease or during states of drug intoxication or withdrawal. Similar disorders developing in the presence of epilepsy or other brain disease should be coded under F06. Pattern of course the course of schizophrenic disorders can be classified by using the following five-character codes: F20. The clinical picture is dominated by relatively stable, often paranoid, delusions, usually accompanied by hallucinations, particularly of the auditory variety, and perceptual disturbances. Disturbances of affect, volition, and speech, and catatonic symptoms, are not prominent. Examples of the most common paranoid symptoms are: (a)delusions of persecution, reference, exalted birth, special mission, bodily change, or jealousy; (b)hallucinatory voices that threaten the patient or give commands, or auditory hallucinations without verbal form, such as whistling, humming, or laughing; (c)hallucinations of smell or taste, or of sexual or other bodily sensations; visual hallucinations may occur but are rarely predominant. Thought disorder may be obvious in acute states, but if so it does not prevent the typical delusions or hallucinations from being described clearly. Affect is usually less blunted than in other varieties of schizophrenia, but a minor degree of incongruity is common, as are mood disturbances such as irritability, sudden anger, fearfulness, and suspicion. The course of paranoid schizophrenia may be episodic, with partial or complete remissions, or chronic. In chronic cases, the florid symptoms persist over years and it is difficult to distinguish discrete episodes. In addition, hallucinations and/or delusions must be prominent, and disturbances of affect, volition and speech, and catatonic symptoms must be relatively inconspicuous. Delusions can be of almost any kind but delusions of control, influence, or passivity, and persecutory beliefs of various kinds are the most characteristic. It is important to exclude epileptic and drug-induced psychoses, and to remember that persecutory delusions might carry little diagnostic weight in people from certain countries or cultures. The mood is shallow and inappropriate and often accompanied by giggling or self-satisfied, self-absorbed smiling, or by a lofty manner, grimaces, mannerisms, pranks, hypochondriacal complaints, and reiterated phrases. There is a tendency to remain solitary, and behaviour seems empty of purpose and feeling. This form of schizophrenia usually starts between the ages of 15 and 25 years and tends to have a poor prognosis because of the rapid development of "negative" symptoms, particularly flattening of affect and loss of volition. Hebephrenia should normally be diagnosed for the first time only in adolescents or young adults. The premorbid personality is characteristically, but not necessarily, rather shy and solitary. For a confident diagnosis of hebephrenia, a period of 2 or 3 months of continuous observation is usually necessary, in order to ensure that the characteristic behaviours described above are sustained. For reasons that are poorly understood, catatonic schizophrenia is now rarely seen in industrial countries, though it remains common elsewhere. These catatonic phenomena may be combined with a dream-like (oneiroid) state with vivid scenic hallucinations. Diagnostic guidelines the general criteria for a diagnosis of schizophrenia (see introduction to F20 above) must be satisfied. Transitory and isolated catatonic symptoms may occur in the context of any other subtype of schizophrenia, but for a diagnosis of catatonic schizophrenia one or more of the following behaviours should dominate the clinical picture: (a)stupor (marked decrease in reactivity to the environment and in spontaneous movements and activity) or mutism; (b)excitement (apparently purposeless motor activity, not influenced by external stimuli); (c)posturing (voluntary assumption and maintenance of inappropriate or bizarre postures); (d)negativism (an apparently motiveless resistance to all instructions or attempts to be moved, or movement in the opposite direction); (e)rigidity (maintenance of a rigid posture against efforts to be moved); (f)waxy flexibility (maintenance of limbs and body in externally imposed positions); and (g)other symptoms such as command automatism (automatic compliance with instructions), and perseveration of words and phrases. In uncommunicative patients with behavioural manifestations of catatonic disorder, the diagnosis of schizophrenia may have to be provisional until adequate evidence of the presence of other symptoms is obtained. It is also vital to appreciate that catatonic symptoms are not diagnostic of schizophrenia. A catatonic symptom or symptoms may also be provoked by brain disease, metabolic disturbances, or alcohol and drugs, and may also occur in mood disorders. Includes: catatonic stupor schizophrenic catalepsy schizophrenic catatonia schizophrenic flexibilitas cerea -81 F20. Diagnostic guidelines this category should be reserved for disorders that: (a)meet the general criteria for schizophrenia; (b)either without sufficient symptoms to meet the criteria for only one of the subtypes F20.

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