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It is clear that causal attributions are important in facilitating health promotion and positive health practices (Rodin and Salovey heart attack jaw cheap toprol xl 50mg with mastercard, 1989; Salovey et al hypertension used in a sentence discount 100mg toprol xl overnight delivery. To the extent possible arrhythmia quiz cheap 25 mg toprol xl, treatment interventions with medically ill persons should incorporate a focus upon enhancing the individual perceptions of control over health and treatment regimens with the aim of increasing adherence to medical regimens and improving adjustment to medical procedures and conditions blood pressure chart for women order 100mg toprol xl with amex. Existing research also underscores Person Perception and Implicit Personality Theories Person perception, also referred to as social perception, pertains to the ways in which people formulate impressions of others (Leyens and Fiske, 1994). Social psychologists have long suggested that people formulate implicit personality theories that consist of general beliefs about human characteristics and patterns of covariation among personality traits (Schneider, 1973). These knowledge systems facilitate rapid formation of inferences about the enduring personality qualities of other people in everyday life by using assumptions about interrelationships among dispositional qualities to draw conclusions about observed behavior. More recently, schema concepts in social cognition have been investigated in order to specify cognitive processes through which individuals organize and represent coherent and meaningful impressions of others (Leyens and Fiske, 1994). These person perception variables affect interaction styles between physicians and their patients which, in turn, may influence the nature and quality of medical care. Person perception has clinical relevance for the cognitive interpretation of interpersonal situations. Thus, while person perception research has demonstrated a normative tendency to make rapid evaluations of others and interpersonal situations based on limited information, this process is apt to become problematic when cognitive distortions are operative. For example, the depressed person with low self-esteem and a pessimistic attributional style who, based on a few experiences of being criticized, perceives others as judgmental in virtually every interpersonal interaction is overgeneralizing based upon limited data. Implicit personality theories and schemas in social cognition are clinically applicable to understanding chronically maladaptive person perception processes. This may have particular relevance for the clinical understanding of personality disorders. For example, the patient with paranoid personality disorder may hold a pervasive view of others as potentially attacking, blaming and controlling (Benjamin, 1996). The patient with borderline personality disorder may perceive others as simultaneously rejecting, abandoning and needing dependent others (Benjamin, 1996). To address these maladaptive implicit personality theories, schemas and associated interaction patterns, effective psychotherapy helps patients identify dysfunctional person perceptions, develop an affective and cognitive awareness of the etiology of these beliefs and the functions they serve, and form more adaptive schemas of self in relation to others (Benjamin, 1996). Individual attitudes consist of three elements: cognitive (beliefs about attitude objects), affective (emotions elicited by attitude objects) and behavioral (action intentions or overt behavior directed toward attitude objects). Additionally, individual attitudes may be associatively or logically linked to form broader inter-attitudinal structures consisting of two or more attitudes (Eagly and Chaiken, 1998). Fundamentally, attitudes serve an important adaptive function by virtue of their evaluative properties involving distinctions of good stimuli presumed to enhance well-being from bad stimuli that could endanger well-being (Eagly and Chaiken, 1998). Attitude Theories Attitude theory and research has a rich history as one of the great areas of inquiry within social psychology (Eagly and Chaiken, 1998; Petty and Wegener, 1998). However, this voluminous and intricate literature can be encapsulated only briefly here. Theoretical frameworks developed in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s that laid the foundation for later social psychological inquiries into attitudes (Table 17. Learning and reinforcement theories of attitude formation and change, founded on principles of behaviorism, were derived Table 17. Individuals form and maintain attitudes that are consistent with their needs and motives. Social judgment theory Consistency theories Attitudes Attitudes refer to evaluations made by people along a continuum from positive to negative about specific entities called attitude objects. Social judgment theory emphasizes the interplay of cognitive and affective attitudinal components and posits that perceptions and judgments mediate attitude change (Sherif et al. Cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) posited that discrepancies between simultaneously held attitudinal cognitions (dissonance) produced psychological tension, requiring attitudinal changes to reestablish consistency (consonance). The degree to which this dissonance causes psychological tension is a function of the personal importance of the cognitions and the number of dissonant cognitions relative to consonant cognitions. An alternative approach that proposed to account for research findings regarding dissonance was self-perception theory (Bem, 1972). According to this perspective, individuals infer their attitudes through observing their own behavioral responses and the conditions under which they occur.
This raises the problem of which mechanisms can account for such a distributed impairment blood pressure nose bleed discount toprol xl 50 mg fast delivery. Accordingly heart attack quizlet toprol xl 25mg low price, one strategy is to identify global coordination dynamics failures in schizophrenia heart attack 8 trailer cheap 100mg toprol xl mastercard. One possible assumption is that different syndromes are related to distinct but overlapping pathologies in the coordination of distributed neuronal activity patterns that are revealed by the systematic investigation of the temporal and spatial organization of neural synchrony across different frequency bands blood pressure medication muscle weakness purchase toprol xl 25 mg free shipping. This is undoubtedly a challenging task, but such a research program would ultimately result in better diagnostic tools for early diagnosis and intervention. Schizophrenia can be seen as a paradigmatic example of impaired dynamic coordination (Silverstein and Schenkel 1997; Phillips and Silverstein 2003) because there are several impairments which prima facie indicate reduced organization of elements into coherent wholes. Moreover, unlike much classic neuropsychological research, evidence of reduced dynamic coordination in schizophrenia is sometimes revealed by superior task performance. However, schizophrenia is not the only disorder where impairments in dynamic coordination are evident. A comparison across disorders could assist our understanding of both the causes of dynamic coordination impairments and the bases of normal dynamic coordination (Silverstein, this volume). Comparing schizophrenia with other developmental disorders, are there types of coordination impairments that generalize across disorders For example, reductions in visual perceptual organization and theory of mind have been noted in developmental (autism spectrum) disorders. Another interesting case is provided by Williams syndrome, a genetic condition in which a relatively consistent neurobehavioral phenotype is produced by a small deletion on chromosome 7. One of the intriguing aspects of this syndrome is a characteristic abnormality of neural connectivity in a single cortical area, the primary visual cortex (Reiss et al. Strabismic amblyopia represents another interesting developmental abnormality, where a clear relation between structural changes in the cortical network, impairments of dynamic coordination, and disturbed perceptual and behavioral function has been established. The links established by those studies between behavioral evidence for impaired dynamic coordination. Acknowledgments We thank Maurizio Corbetta, Shimon Edelman, Pascal Fries, Wolf Singer, and Matthew Wilson for contributing to our group discussions. Bibliography Note: Numbers in square brackets denote the chapter in which an entry is cited. Coding of serial order by neostriatal neurons: A "natural action" approach to movement sequence. Abnormalities in brain synchronization are correlated with cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis. White matter development during late adolescence in healthy males: A cross-sectional diffusion tensor imaging study. Experience-dependent visual cue integration based on consistencies between visual and haptic percepts.
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